3.2.2.3.3. Applications

it is critical that learning strategies be considered when planning courses, teaching students, and designing classroom research. Appropriate learning strategies should be among the first considerations of any ESL/EFL teacher or researcher who wants to enhance student learning. (Oxford 1996a:37)

Jones et al.(1987), in their Strategic Teaching Model, offer six assumptions drawn from cognitive learning theory which they suggest can guide teachers in their preparation and presentation of lessons, of which number four states that "Effective learning involves the use of strategies" (quoted in O'Malley & Chamot 1990:187). However, the use of the term "assumption" here is significant, since there is no general consensus on how (or whether) training in learning strategies should be incorporated into the language classroom. Some authors call for explicit instruction (Ellis & Sinclair 1989; Willis 1996), and others suggest that strategy training needs to occur in conjunction with the regular course of instruction over an extended period of time (Campione & Armbruster 1985; Chamot & O'Malley 1987; Wenden 1987a). Dickinson (1992:17) asserts that students must be given both psychological and methodological preparation before taking on learner-training, (cf. Wenden 1995:192; Holec 1981), psychological preparation being about persuading them (if appropriate) to change their attitude to learning and adjust their role in the learning process. Dickinson sees this as a learning goal in its own right, to be realised through methodological preparation: "a matter of teaching learners techniques which facilitate more active and independent involvement in language learning." (Dickinson 1992:18).

Combining suggestions from Dickinson (1992) and Ellis & Sinclair (1989), Tudor (1996) suggests three main target areas for learner training instruction: i) language learning and language learning processes; ii) language structure and language use; iii) the learners themselves as language learners. Wenden (1991b), Ellis & Sinclair (1989:10) and Huang & van Naerssen (1987:296) require students to be aware, self-regulating, reflective (and by implication, autonomous). Thus learning about strategies should be:

1.  Informed: The purpose of the training should be made explicit and its value brought to the students' attention (Wenden 1991b). Teachers should help learners become aware of the wide range of alternative strategies available to them for language learning (Ellis & Sinclair 1989:10; Huang & van Naerssen 1987:296). Discussion in the classroom about language and language learning should be encouraged (Ellis & Sinclair 1989:10; Huang & van Naerssen 1987:296).
2. Self-regulated: Students should be trained how to regulate the use of the strategy (Wenden 1991b).
3. Contextualised: Training should be in the context of the subject matter content and/or skill for which it is appropriate. It should be directed to specific language learning problems related to the learners' experiences (Wenden 1991b).
4. Interactive: Teachers should work with the students, sharing information about language and language learning, until they exhibit ability to regulate their use of the strategy (Wenden 1991b; Ellis & Sinclair 1989:10). Teachers should counsel and give guidance to individual learners whenever possible (Ellis & Sinclair, 1989:10).
5. Diagnostic: Information on which strategies students use and how well they use them should be collected so that the training can be based on the proficiency of the students. (Wenden 1991b).
6. Reflective: Teachers should create a learning environment where learners feel they can experiment with their language learning (Ellis & Sinclair 1989:10; Huang & van Naerssen, 1987:296).
7. Autonomous: Learners should be allowed to form their own conclusions about language learning and their individual points of view should be respected (Ellis & Sinclair 1989:10).

Weaver & Cohen report that "no empirical evidence has yet been provided to determine the best overall method for conducting strategy training" (1998: 71), though they identify three main instructional frameworks designed to raise student awareness about strategy use, to give students opportunities to practice the strategies that they are being taught, and to help them understand how to use the strategies in new learning contexts. The first of these, by Pearson & Dole (1987), shows a number of similarities to the "3Ps"[8] approach to language teaching (cf. Skehan 1998:94, White 1988), teaching specific strategy use as lesson content through modelling, explanation, functional practice, and transfer of the strategy to new learning contexts:

1.  initial modelling of the strategy by the teacher, with direct explanation of the strategy's use and importance;
2. guided practice with the strategy;
3. consolidation where teachers help students identify the strategy and decide when it might be used;
4. independent practice with the strategy;
5. application of the strategy to new tasks. (Weaver & Cohen 1998:71)

The second framework identified by Weaver & Cohen is that of Oxford et al. (1990), who  include strategy awareness, self-evaluation and self-monitoring of language performance, in a more student-centred approach:

1. ask learners to do a language activity without any strategy training;
2. have them discuss how they did it, praise any useful strategies and self-directed attitudes that they mention, and ask them to reflect on how the strategies they selected may have facilitated the learning process;
3. suggest and demonstrate other helpful strategies, mentioning the need for greater self-direction and expected beliefs, and making sure that the students are aware of the rationale for strategy use. Learners can also be asked to identify those strategies that they do not currently use, and consider ways that they could include new strategies in their learning repertoires;
4. allow learners plenty of time to practice the new strategies with language tasks;
5. show how the strategies can be transferred to other  tasks;
6. provide practice using the techniques with new tasks and allow learners to make choices about the strategies they will use to complete the language learning task;
7. help students understand how to evaluate the success of their strategy use and to gauge their progress as responsible and self-directed learners. (Weaver & Cohen 1998:72)

Chamot & O'Malley (1994) provide the third framework, which is more process-oriented and is especially useful after students have already had practice applying a broad range of strategies in a variety of contexts. This approach offers a four-stage problem-solving process in which learner-training is part of language learning:

1. Planning: The instructor presents the students with a language task and explains the rationale. Students are asked to plan their approaches to the task, choosing strategies they feel are appropriate.
2. Monitoring: During the task, students are asked to 'self-monitor' their performance.
3. Problem-solving: Students are expected to find their own solutions to problems as they arise.
4. Evaluation: Learners are given time to 'debrief'. (Weaver & Cohen 1998:73)

In addition to these frameworks, a number of guidelines for strategy training have been proposed (e.g. Wenden 1987a; 1991b; Chamot & Kupper 1989; Dickinson 1992; Huang & van Naerssen 1987; Oxford 1989;1990b;1996a). Chamot & Kupper draw attention to the necessity for preparation, stressing strategy-needs analysis in their six steps to learning strategy instruction: i) identify students' current strategies; ii) assess their strategy needs; iii) plan strategy instruction; iv) teaching strategies; v) evaluate strategy use; vi) help students transfer strategies to new tasks (1989:19).

A number of methods of assessing existing learning strategies have been used over the past two decades: informal observation and discussion (cf. Rubin, 1975); think-alouds (e.g. Cohen & Hosenfeld 1981), interviews (e.g. O'Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzared, Kupper, Russo 1985), questionnaires (e.g. Politzer 1983; Oxford 1986, 1989), computer assessment (e.g. Jamieson & Chapelle 1987), and product analysis (Vann & Schmidt 1993; Abraham & Vann 1994). Oxford (1996a) compares a number of strategy-assessment methods, as in table XVII, below:

From this table, Oxford infers a number of implications for research and instruction:

1. Language researchers must conceptualise language learning strategies in a way that includes the social and affective sides of learning.
2. Through strategy assessment, teachers can help their students recognise the power of using language learning strategies for making learning quicker, easier and more effective.
3. Based on the information from the strategy assessment, teachers can weave strategy instruction into regular classroom events in a natural, comfortable, but explicit way (cf. Chamot & Kupper 1989; Oxford 1990b; O'Malley & Chamot 1990). Teachers must also consider differences in motivation, learning style, gender, and other factors that affect learning strategy use.
4. Teachers need to be judicious in their selection of strategies to use in instruction.
5. Strategy assessments using different measurement modes with the same sample of students could be cross-related. This would contribute to the validity of various assessment techniques.
6. Studies need to be replicated so the more consistent information becomes available within and across populations. (Oxford 1996a:36-37)

Wenden (1987b:159) suggests that explicitness of purpose, content, and evaluation be taken into account in the development and implementation of activities and materials for learner training, and offers "tentative guidelines for teachers and administrators who wish to provide students with more systematic training in learning how to learn":

1. Inform students of the value and significance of the strategies you train them to use.
2. Provide training in both cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Training in metacognition should include both awareness raising or reflection on the nature of learning and training in the skills necessary to plan, monitor and evaluate learning activities.
3. To determine how to integrate learner training with language training, take into account the following factors:
• Range and specificity
• Autonomy of application
• Learners' needs
4. In evaluating learner training it is important to consider the following:
• Learner attitudes: has learners' appreciation of learner training changed?
• Skills acquisition: has the learning skill been learned?
• Task improvement: does the skill facilitate performance of the language task?
• Durability: does the skill continue to be utilised"
• Transfer: is the skill utilised in similar contexts? (Adapted from Wenden 1987b:166)

Dickinson (1992:23) derives an "IDEAL" procedure for learners to select and monitor their use of learning strategies (Identify, Define, Explore, Act, Look), which is mirrored in Williams & Burden's (1997:165) fundamental questions for learners: