CHAPTER 7: PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT (Continued)
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7.3.2 Learner autonomy
Autonomy in learning, which has been identified as a key goal of language learning (section 3.5) and as a core goal ("Independence") of the programme under consideration (section 4.3), is addressed in a number of ways in the programme textbooks:

1.      Redefined teacher/student roles (section 7.3.2.1).
2.      Learner-training  (section 7.3.2.2).
3.      Self-assessment  (section 7.3.2.3).

Promotion of learner autonomy begins in TMM through student involvement in task-selection and interpretation of the instructions for each activity. This develops through NYT, with the introduction of project-based activities (e.g. NYT Chapter 3 – "The Newspaper"), until students using TWA are following or devising learning projects at one of two levels: i) for those who feel ready to make their own projects and to determine what and how they want to learn, there is the "Project Schedule" (cf. appendix C-22); ii) for others, the "Alternative Schedule" (cf. appendix C-23) offers activities that build into a performance project. In this study, it was noticeable that most students, having performed two or three projects in the first semester[1], using the alternative schedule, decided to devise their own projects in the second semester of their Junior year. Thus TWA can be seen as a training text rather than an instructional one, and its success can be assessed by the number of students who "grow out" of it.

7.3.2.1 Teacher/student roles
The student-centred classroom implies new roles for its participants (section 3.4.5; cf. Wright 1987a), with students discovering and accessing language, and teachers facilitating this. The literature review on affect (section 3.3) has also shown that the teacher needs to take on a counselling role (cf. section 3.2.1.3.6), and to promote a non-threatening learning environment (section 3.3.2.6, 3.3.6). The textbooks in this study build on these ideas, aiming for a "workshop" classroom atmosphere, in which students learn what they want to learn (according to their perceptions and learning beliefs – sections 3.3.3, 4.3.1), and the teacher is a guest, providing counselling and advice when asked, and when appropriate. Learners in the study were required to obtain university credits through attending Conversation English courses, but this did not mean that learning had to be imposed, prescribed and evaluated by external coercive agents. Students who were largely convinced of their inability to succeed (section 2.3.3.1) needed to learn confidence, motivation and independence (section 4.3) in order to become active language learners. Promotion of a responsible approach to learning was therefore a high priority in textbook design.

7.3.2.1.1 Instructions
One means of inviting students and teachers to actively re-assess their roles in the classroom was through the instructions for each activity in the textbooks. As can be seen in Chapter 1 of TMM (appendices C-1-C11) and Project 1 of TWA (appendices C-21-33, C-53), all these instructions are directed at the students. There is no indication of any need for "teacher talk", as the suggestions to the teacher (TMM Teacher's Resource Book, page 6, appendix C-13) confirm. Students therefore need to read and understand these instructions in order to perform the activities. For the teachers, these comprehension exercises can indicate students or groups of students who need assistance. However, it is vital that those who can understand be allowed to perform the activity in their own way, to extract the learning opportunities that they choose (including accessing the teacher), to move on to the next activity at their own speed, or to develop more complex activities as they wish. This allows students to learn what they feel is relevant, at the pace that suits them. The classroom in which all groups work on the same activity at the same time, and in which the teacher says "Communicate now", "Stop communicating now", "Listen to me", and "Communicate again", is not promoting learner autonomy, and can only lead to frustration through lack of task completion (cf. sections 3.4.4.2.1.1 [Skehan 1996a:38], 3.4.4.2.2), and hence to decreased motivation for learning.

In this study, a number of teachers were confused by this change in classroom roles, and felt guilty that they were not satisfying their responsibilities as teachers (cf. table A-77). However, once they gained experience in facilitating learning through encouraging students to direct the activities, and to find ways of solving comprehension problems, teachers generally found that their new role of language resource/advisor/counsellor resulted in them becoming part of a dynamic learning environment, in which they were actively facilitating learning (cf. appendix A-77).

7.3.2.2 Learner training.
Allwright (1988a:35) and Nunan (1997:201) see the "seeds" of autonomy and individualisation already existing in the language classroom (section 3.2.1.3.3), but Dickinson (1987:2) and Nunan (1996:15) also make the point that development of these autonomous abilities is a slow process that needs assistance through learner-training (learning how to learn) (cf. section 3.2.2). Learner-training is an important aspect of the textbooks in this study, and is largely implicit in the general learning environment engendered by them. It is also addressed in a number of explicit ways, as described in the following paragraphs.

TMM, NYT and TWA contain specific sections on learner training. In TMM this appears in the form of an "Information Section" (between Chapters 1 & 2 – appendices C-15-19, C-34), a feature of which is that learner training issues are presented in the manner of the whole book, rather than being a pre-cursor of task-based learning (cf. Esch's comment about the danger of teacher-control returning "through the back door" in learner-training courses - Esch 1996b:175; section 3.2.1.2.2), and use task typology, procedure, and learning methodology that appears elsewhere in the book:

TMM Information section

1.      "Class Information" (appendix C-15): Students take responsibility for being aware of lesson requirements and criteria for allocation of marks.

2.      "How do I like to learn?" (appendix C-16): A "learning preference" questionnaire introduces the concept of talking/thinking about how to learn.

3.      "What can I do?" (appendix C-17): This task poses questions on how to improve various aspects of learning the L2 (identification of problems and learning methods), and uses a board-game format (plus teacher-resource cards).

4.      "What do I need to do?" (appendix C-18): Having talked about how to learn, students think about planning and goal-setting. Such concepts are generally new to Freshmen students, so the major value of these tasks is consciousness-raising ("setting the wheels in motion"). This task also appears in TWA (Introduction section), at which time it is one of a number of tasks leading up to a group interview with the teacher.

5.      "My English ability" (appendix C-34): This self-assessment task appears at the beginning and the end of TMM and NYT, and is an important awareness/feedback instrument for students, teachers and curriculum designers (cf. section 7.3.2.3).

6.      "Interview" (appendix C-19): Having identified learning problems and goals, students interview each other about those concepts.

In NYT, learner training is addressed in a chapter on "Study Skills" (Ch. 2, pages. 17-30, e.g. appendix C-35), in which "learning how to learn" is not presented as  "something to be taught by the teacher before we can start the language learning", but as one of many topics to be explored by students using the task-based framework. The self-assessment instrument in NYT ("My Ability", pages.20/21, 157/158, appendix C-34) was still not included in final grading, but by the end of NYT, students had 4-stage learner-profiles showing how their beliefs had changed over two years (cf. Ch. 8, research instrument 1).

In TWA, learner training begins from the first pages of the book, with an explanation (in Korean and English) about project-based learning, followed by a general introduction (also in Korean and English) to the ideas and activity types in the book. The first "Introduction Section" then prepares students for their initial group-counselling session with the teacher (and for the ideas and procedures in the course), by working through a number of interactive needs-analyses and language-learning awareness-raising activities (appendices C-39-52), one of which ("Time management", appendix C-47) forms the basis of the first student-teacher interview session (cf. "Appointments", appendix C-49), itself a pre-cursor to the reflective "Evaluation sessions" that appear later in the book (cf. appendices C62/3) (cf. also section 7.3.4). This first interview is crucial for the Junior programme, since it sets up the learning environment, checking on comprehension of methods (e.g. grading, assignments, homework, planning) and purposes (e.g. learning goals), and involves students in the sort of learning conversation that they will be using throughout the year. The Introduction section (which takes 6 x 50-minute lessons) finishes with a "Measure of Autonomy and Self-Direction" (appendix C-52) adapted from Dickinson (1986), which is one of the various self-assessment/consciousness-raising questionnaires that appear at the end of each section of the book. 

Finally, each book has an English-Korean dictionary at the back. This dictionary contains the words that are used in the book, and provides an extra opportunity for learner-training, with students learning and/or practising data-accessing skills[2].

An example of the integrated learner-training that occurs in TWA appears in the various "Cassette Journal" entries. This idea grew from a Learning Journal (Finch 1998b), which was used in the pilot year of the programme, but which was found to divert student attention away from the conversation sessions. It was therefore incorporated into TWA in the form of reflective instruments (cf. appendices C-52-61) and a "cassette journal". Thus in appendix C-31 (cf. TWA, page 45), students are encouraged to make a self-profile, using positive words, and to record it on their cassette tape. As well as being a confidence-booster, this activity is one of a number (TWA pages 59, 89, 141, 156, 171) which invite students to make their own learning journal on cassette tape, to make extra additions whenever they wish, and to let the teacher add his/her own input (TWA pages 201/2), thus providing an interesting record of developing oral skills over the two semesters of the course.

7.3.2.3 Self-assessment
Self-assessment (cf. section 3.2.3) can be seen as a part of learner training, but it is discussed separately here, in view of its evaluative and reflective aspects, which bear on the oral testing component of the programme. As with learner training (section 7.3.2.2) self-assessment was largely implicit in the overall language situation in the ANU programme, but it was also highlighted in a number of ways, in order to help students become aware of its role in learning (cf. Skehan's "noticing" principle – item 10, section 7.3.1.2).

7.3.2.3.1 Texbooks
The self-assessment instrument in TMM and NYT (appendix C-34) was an important indicator of learner beliefs, since it showed how students perceived their oral skills at the given points in the programme. Students giving themselves unrealistically low (or high) scores were allowed to do so without contradiction from the teacher, since this represented their opinion of their abilities. As the programme progressed over years 1 & 2, and they were encouraged to become more confident, motivated and independent (in addition to developing their oral skills), and their perceived progress in these directions was reflected in the 2^nd, 3^rd and 4^th versions of the instrument. (cf. chapter 8, research instrument 1).

Reflection on achievement is a necessary aspect of the sort of negotiation of learning that is an integral part of the Junior year course. This reflection is also prompted by the final page of each project in TWA (e.g. appendix C-33), in which students are asked to complete a number of self-assessment tasks. The first of these is to fill in the relevant section of the "How was my learning?" sheet (TWA pages. 196-197, appendix C-36,), which invites students to rate their own progress in terms of Speaking Skills (range, fluency, delivery, attitude, interaction), Learning Skills (remembering language, organising study time, assessing learning, managing emotions, learning with others), and Participation in Class (speaking in English, joining in activities, punctuality, homework). If used regularly, this sheet can provide a profile of perceived progress, which can be discussed in the learner conversations at the end of each semester (cf. appendices C-62/3; section 7.3.5, assessment). The second reflective task is to fill in the "How was the project?" sheet (TWA pages. 198-199, cf. appendix C-37), a peer-assessment instrument for evaluating the different groups as they perform the project. As with other self-assessment instruments in this programme, the aim of this activity is consciousness-raising, but, if these marks are used to contribute towards the final grade, the evaluation becomes more meaningful, and learners become more critical (in an informed way) of their peers – and of themselves. The third reflective task (TWA page 200, appendix C-38) is to fill in the relevant section of "My Project Assessment". This item asks students to allocate themselves a mark (up to 15%) for their contribution to the project. Students might be uncomfortable with this, but as with the other assessment instruments, the aim is to stimulate discussion, reflection, and development of realistic self-assessment skills, so that some facilitative confusion and anxiety (Bailey 1983) is not out of place.

Self-assessment in the Junior year was an integral part of assessment and grading in this study, and is therefore further discussed in section 7.3.4 (assessment).

7.3.2.3.2 Participation sheet
Another way in which self-assessment was promoted in the ANU language programme was through the use of participation sheets (appendix C-64) – ongoing records of student participation in the lessons. Criteria relevant to students' perceived learning needs (e.g. "Do my best", "Speak in English", "Don't be late", "Bring my book" – cf. "The Learning Contract", appendix C-51) could be derived by the students through discussion in class (an authentic communicative activity!) and then marked by them individually in each lesson. Rather than resulting in unrealistic allocation of participation marks, this practice provided opportunities for learning conversations, when students disagreed on the appropriate mark for their peers. In the cases when participation marks were obviously inappropriate, this gave the teacher a topic for counselling and advice.