Literature review: EFL syllabus design (Continued).
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3.4.4.2.3. The Task-Based Syllabus
The Task-Based Syllabus per se is described by White (1988) as a "particular expression of changes in our frames of reference, through i) its representation of communicative competence as the undertaking and achievement of a range of tasks; ii) its direct reliance on the contributions of learners in terms of the mobilisation of the prior communicative competence which learners bring to any task; and iii) its emphasis upon the learning process as appropriate content during language learning"(1988:102). Skehan (1996b) agrees that TBSs can trigger acquisitional processes, though he also voices concerns (linguistic and psychological) on: i) whether a focus on meaning can be relied to engage such acquisitional processes; ii) problems of the role of explicitness and consciousness; iii) the need for the manipulation of attentional focus; and iv) the need to acknowledge dual modes of processing (structural and exemplar-based):

This discrepancy places proponents of task-based instruction in a difficult position, since, while it is clear that there are advantages to using such an approach, it is difficult to know how strongly to argue this position, and how exactly to implement such instruction. A necessary step, therefore, is to ... set appropriate goals for task-based approaches. (Skehan, 1996a:46)

Breen (1987b:161) observes that participation in communication and communicating for learning are equally valuable in the TBS, since learning tasks "call upon and engage the same abilities which underlie communication itself." His analysis of the TBS according to his five sub-questions (section 3.4.2) appears in table 31, below:

TABLE 31: THE TASK-BASED SYLLABUS. BASED ON BREEN (1987B:161-164) 

Task-based syllabus

1. What knowledge does it focus on?

Communicative knowledge as a unity of text, interpersonal behaviour, and ideation.

The learner's experience and awareness of working upon a new language.

2. What capabilities does it focus on and prioritise?

Communicative abilities and learning capability.

The ability to negotiate meaning: the ability to interpret meaning; the ability to  express meaning

3. On what basis does it select and subdivide what is to be learned?

Analysis of the actual tasks which a person may undertake when communicating through the target language.

Learning tasks: selected on the basis of metacommunicative criteria. They provide the groundwork for the learner's engagement in communication tasks and deal with learner difficulties which emerge during these tasks, addressing i) how the knowledge systems work, and ii) how the learning may be best done.

Subdivision is on the basis of task types (various ways).

4. How does it sequence what is to be learned?

Sequencing "can ... be characterised as cyclic in relation to how learners move through tasks, and problem-based (or problem-generated) in relation to the on-going difficulties which learners themselves discover.”

There is a sequence of refinement as tasks require more and more learner competence.

There is a sequence of diagnosis and remediation in parallel with the refinement.

Sequencing here "depends upon: a) the identification of learning problems or difficulties as they arise; b) the prioritising of particular problems and the order in which they may be dealt with; c) the identification of appropriate learning tasks which address the problem areas”.

5. What is its rationale?

Broader view of what is to be achieved in language learning.

The learner's initial competence can be engaged as the foundation upon which new knowledge and capabilities may be accommodated during the undertaking of tasks, matching the process which occurs when learners mobilise knowledge systems when undertaking actual tasks in the L1.

Participation in communication tasks which require the learners to mobilise and orchestrate knowledge and abilities in a direct way  will itself be a catalyst for language learning.

A more sensitive methodology: represents the effort to relate content to how that content may be worked upon, and thereby, learned more efficiently.

Means-focused and ends-focused.

Assumes that learning is necessarily both metacommunicative and communicative.

Based on the belief that learners can be analytical in their exploration of communication in the target language and of the knowledge and ability use it entails”.

"... rests on the principle that metacommunicating is itself a powerful springboard for language learning.”

 

3.4.4.2.3.1. Task Types
Properties of suitable language learning tasks have been examined and categorised a number of ways, with a view to analysing and trying to understand the learning process and the interaction associated with different task types. A summary of research findings in this field appears in table 32, below: 

TABLE 32: RESEARCH ON TASK TYPES. BASED ON NUNAN (1993:60) AND SKEHAN (1998:116-117) 

Researchers

Findings

Long (1981a)

Two-way tasks prompt more conversational adjustments than one-way tasks.

Brown & Yule (1983)

The length of the speaking turn is a factor in the difficulty of speaking tasks.

Brown, Anderson, Shilcock & Yule (1984)

Distinction between static, dynamic and abstract tasks:

  • l          Static tasks involve simple transmission of information in a linear sequence, often using easily prescribed language;
  • l          Dynamic tasks involve the speakers in two-way conversations in which language is not prescribed, and in which relations may vary;
  • l          Static tasks (e.g. description) are easier than dynamic tasks (e.g. narration), which are easier then abstract tasks (e.g. opinion-giving);
  • l          the number of elements, participants, and relationships in a task makes it more difficult.

Tarone (1985)

Attention to form has a clear effect on accuracy of performance.

Brock (1986)

Use of referential questions prompts significantly longer and more systematically complex responses containing more connectives.

Doughty & Pica (1986)

Required information exchange tasks generate significantly more interactional modifications than optional information exchange tasks.

Duff (1986)

Convergent (problem-solving) tasks produce more negotiation of meaning than divergent (debating) tasks (this was not born out fully).

Long & Crookes (1986)

Use of referential questions results in greater mastery of experiential content.

Ellis (1987)

There is evidence of an interaction between the engagement of planned discourse and different forms of the past tense under different task conditions.

Nunan (1987)

Use of referential questions prompts more negotiation of meaning and syntactically and discoursally more complex language

Prabhu (1987)

Classification of task types:

  • l          Information-gap tasks
  • l          Reasoning-gap tasks
  • l          opinion-gap tasks

Nunan (1988b; 1988c)

There are often dramatic mismatches between the activity preferences of teachers and students.

Willing (1988)

Learners' activity preferences can vary markedly and are determined by cognitive style and personality variables.

Crookes (1989)

There is greater complexity and lexical variety for tasks done under a planning time condition, but no greater accuracy.

Nation (1990)

Classification of task types:

  • l          experience tasks (using the learners' previous experience);
  • l          shared tasks (getting learners to help each other bridge the learning gap);
  • l          guided tasks (providing support while learners perform the task, by giving exercises and focused guidance);
  • l          independent tasks (in which learners work alone without planned help).

Brown (1991)

Interpretative tasks generate more complexity.

Pica et al (1993)

Symmetric tasks generate more interaction and negotiation of meaning.

Duff (1996)
  • l          Agreed-outcome tasks favour short turns and less complex language.
  • l          Tasks allowing disagreement lead to longer turns and more complex and varied language.

Foster & Skehan (1996)
  • l          Structured tasks produce greater fluency (unplanned) and accuracy (planned).
  • l          Concrete/immediate tasks are easier, but evidence supporting this proposition is mixed.
  • l          There is an interaction between opportunity to plan and task type.

Continue reading this literature review: "Task Selection"