Introduction

Set book: Nunan, D. (1999 [1989]). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.
Recommended Reading: Tomlinson, B. (2001 [1998]) Materials Development in Language Teaching.Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press .
More Reading: Bibliography
Glossary of terms in materials design

This course investigates Materials Design for the English Language classroom, focusing on some basic practical perspectives: "Why?", "What?" and "How?".

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1. Why Materials Design?

Every language teacher faces the problem of materials selection and use:

    • "How do I find and use learning materials of the appropriate level?"
    • "How do I find and use learning materials that demonstrate current educational principles (e.g. student-centred, holistic, process learning)?"
    • "How do I find and use learning materials that demonstrate cultural sensitivity (focus on indigenous as well as foreign cultures)?"
    • "How do I find and use learning materials of the appropriate methodology (e.g. task-based)?"
    • "How do I find and use learning materials of the appropriate scope (e.g. 60 class-hours per book) ?"

White (1988:113) remarks that choice of textbooks is "often dealt with in a largely unplanned manner", choosing commercial texts based on a linear, reductionist view of language learning, which encourage teachers to present (and test) discrete language items, and to believe that valid language acquisition is occurring as a result. EFL texts thus often describe Caucasian families in America or England, and subscribe to teacher-centred presentation of formal concepts (Breen 1987a:86), giving little attention (beyond the contents page) to promotion of autonomy, positive affect, learner training, cultural sensitivity/suitability and critical thinking.

This course will examine how individual teachers can make their own materials, emphasising affective rather than cognitive development, de-emphasising the transmission of a fixed body of knowledge, and focusing on the capacity to learn independently, to develop effective thinking techniques, and to learn how to learn (cf. Richards' [1985] "self-actualization" approach).

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2. What is Materials Design?

Language teachers design materials to supplement class texts and to promote learning where texts are not available. Such materials aim to have a positive effect on learners by enhancing curiosity, interest and attention, so that the chances of the language being successfully processed by the learner are increased. Materials designed by individual teachers can also be fashioned specifically for the students themselves, addressing learning issues relevant to the particular classes. Finally, materials that have been made by the teacher and the students can facilitate the "learning to learn" process and encourage students to develop learning skills that will be useful for the rest of their lives.

  1. Such materials should achieve impact through:
    • novelty (e.g. unusual topics, illustrations and activities);
    • variety;
    • attractive presentation;
    • appealing content.
  2. Such materials should help the learners feel at ease.
  3. Such materials should help the learners to develop confidence.
  4. What is taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful.
  5. Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment.
  6. Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught.
  7. Materials should expose the learners to language in authentic use.
  8. The learners' attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input.
  9. Materials should provide the learners with opportunities to use the target language to achieve communicative purposes.
  10. Materials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually delayed
  11. Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning styles.
  12. Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective attitudes.
  13. Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction.
  14. Materials should maximise learning potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic and emotional involvement which stimulates both right and left brain activities.
  15. Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice.
  16. Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback.

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3. How can we design effective Materials?

Willis (1996) and Skehan (1998) each offer five principles for the implementation of a task-based approach to Materials design:

    1. There should be exposure to worthwhile and authentic language.
    2. There should be use of language.
    3. Tasks should motivate learners to engage in language use.
    4. There should be a focus on language at some points in a task cycle.
    5. The focus on language should be more and less prominent at different times. (Adapted from Willis 1996)

     

    1. Choose a range of target structures (learners do not simply learn what teachers teach. It is ineffective to choose a particular structure to be learned).
    2. Choose tasks which meet the utility criterion (the teacher can only create appropriate conditions and hope the learners will avail themselves of the possibilities).
    3. Select and sequence tasks to achieve balanced development (see below).
    4. Maximise the chances of a focus on form through attentional manipulation.
    5. At initial stages of task use, conditions need to be established to maximise the chances of noticing. (Adapted from Skehan 1998:129-32)

Candlin's (1987) also offers useful criteria:

    1. one-way tasks should precede two-way tasks;
    2. static tasks should precede dynamic tasks;
    3. tasks in the present time should precede ones using the past or future;
    4. easy tasks should precede difficult ones;
    5. simple tasks (only one step) should precede complex tasks (many steps).

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The principles discussed in this section can be illustrated by taking a sample page from one of the author's textbooks, in this case page 7, Chapter 1,  “Good to be back” from NYT (click on illustration opposite). There are three activities on this page, the third growing out of the first two, though it could be said that a fourth activity is to read and perform the instructions (student interpretation of which provides authentic use of the target language, item 2, Willis's list, above). This static. one-way, present-time, simple activity (items 1,2,3,5, Willis's list, above) can be easy or difficult, (item 4) depending on the students, and the teacher (or peers) will need to assist those who have trouble (assisting fellow students is an effective and comfortable way of sharing meaning and learning).

For those who comprehend the instructions immediately, authentic language (item 1, Willis's list) appears in the two scrambled dialogues, and this language is made more meaningful by its appearance at the beginning of the book, after students have returned from vacation. Target structures (item 1, Skehan's list, above) are represented by the focus on the past tense in these dialogues, but as Skehan suggests, this is to be noticed (item 5, Skehan's list) rather than taught.

As explained in the instructions, the phrases are not in sequence, and students are asked to “find a good order” (not a “correct” order). It is not mentioned whether this should be done in pairs or groups, but discussion of the phrases (in the L2 if possible – item3, Willis's list) will ensue as students share their understanding of the terms, and sequences of phrases will constructed by various-sized groups, who will usually want to perform their dialogue, even if only to themselves or to each other. At this point, differences in sequences will provide further material for discussion (accessing the teacher if necessary) on the meaning of the phrases (items 4, 5, Willis's list, 4, 5, Skehan's list). The final activity (4 & 5 in the instructions) is to make and perform “your own dialog” (item 3, Skehan's list). This more complex task (item 5, Willis's list) can be an opportunity for students to create their own dialogues (item 3, Willis's list), using the other dialogs as examples, or in the case of students who do not feel confident enough to do this, dialogues 1 & 2 (page 7, NYT, above) can be used as templates, and students can make a “jigsaw” dialogue of the phrases they want.

Students are thus presented with a sequenced collection of tasks, building from static to dynamic, one-way to two-way, simple to complex, and present tense to past tense (cf. items 1-5, Candlin's list, above). Autonomy is promoted through students being able to decide how to interpret the instructions, at what pace to perform the activities, how much attention to pay to form and meaning (accessing the teacher if necessary), whether to move on to “follow-up” activities such as talking about their own holidays, and (informal) peer assessment of colleagues’ performances. Positive affect is encouraged by the lack of any “correct” answer to the scrambled dialogues (students’ opinions are valid), the freedom to do any or all of the activities, the use of the teacher as a language resource, the further freedom to perform final dialogues within groups or to the whole class, and the opportunity to comment (or not) on each others’ performances.

 

There will be many things to do in this course, since there are so many aspects of Materials Design to investigate. However, please remember that education is for the students, and the students are the most important people in this course and in every course. There will therefore be a continuous focus on course participants, in terms of learner-training, self-assessment, goal-setting, reflection and evaluation.

This course is for you, and you will therefore be helping to make it and evaluate it!
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